Chapter (PDF Available). Brusca and Brusca 2003, Klussmann-Kolb et. E cortex is composed of several layers of the.

Aspects of asexual reproduction in holothurians are discussed. Holothurians are significant as fishery and aquaculture items and have high commercial value. The last review on holothurian asexual reproduction was published 18 years ago and included only 8 species. An analysis of the available literature shows that asexual reproduction has now been confirmed in 16 holothurian species. Five additional species are also most likely capable of fission. The recent discovery of new fissiparous holothurian species indicates that this reproduction mode is more widespread in Holothuroidea than previously believed.

New data about the history of the discovery of asexual reproduction in holothurians, features of fission, and regeneration of anterior and posterior fragments are described here. Asexual reproduction is obviously controlled by the integrated systems of the organism, primarily the nervous system.

Special molecular mechanisms appear to determine the location where fission occurs along the anterior-posterior axis of the body. Alteration of the connective tissue strength of the body wall may play an important role during fission of holothurians. The basic mechanism of fission is the interaction of matrix metalloproteinases, their inhibitors, and enzymes forming cross-link complexes between fibrils of collagen. The population dynamics of fissiparous holothurians are discussed. Introduction Asexual reproduction is the most ancient mode of reproduction and is observed in representatives of all phyla of modern Metazoa [–].

Because asexual reproduction is closely related to the structure of an animal, its types are as diverse as the animals themselves []. The variety of manifestations of this phenomenon is even greater because asexual reproduction in different species has different biological functions, such as population growth, regulation of body size, colonization of new sites, and survival under adverse conditions.

The evolution of multicellular organisms has apparently passed through repeated losses and restorations of various forms of asexual reproduction []. Among modern groups of asexually reproducing invertebrates, holothurians deserve special consideration because of their commercial value. Holothurians, or sea cucumbers, are a class in the phylum Echinodermata. Holothurians have elongated often worm-shaped bodies that are covered with various outgrowths. Similar to all other echinoderms, holothurians are exclusively marine animals and inhabit all oceans at a broad range of depths, from shallow intertidal zones to 5,000 m and more. Most holothurians are benthic organisms [, ], although there are swimming species and most likely completely pelagic ones []. Holothurians are significant for commercial fishery and aquaculture.

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Approximately 66 holothurian species are commonly exploited throughout the world [–]. People in these regions consider holothurians not only a traditional commodity but also a commercial resource [, ]. Global wild captures and aquaculture production of holothurians during the last 30 years have been increased 7 times amounting more than 20000 t dry weight/annum []. Moreover, holothurians are a major source of biologically active substances in biotechnology and medicine [, –]. They have a wide array of vitamins, minerals, saponins, chondroitin sulfates, polysaccharides, sterols, phenolics, lectins, peptides, glycoprotein, glycosphingolipids, and essential fatty acids []. Thus, various aspects of biochemistry, physiology, and developmental biology of these animals are being actively studied. Holothurians are also notable because they possess diverse regeneration abilities [–].